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In the absence of a geographical or band specific power limits the maximum power permitted is 1500 watts PEP, this applying to all grades, except Novice licence holders, and Technicians on HF.
PEP is Peak Envelope Power, and is normally used when discussing Single Sideband, signals, which are very peaky. However, the FCC applies this to things like FM and CW, where the RMS equals the PEP power. In the latter cases, this is 12 times the power, or 10.8 dB above, the 125 watt limit for these modes in VK.
There is however a rule that only the power needed to make the contact should be used. People on the other side on the continent don't want to hear you discussing your internal disorders with the bloke down the road!
Note that some power answers include "output", to indicate that power is measured at the output connector on the radio, but also to differentiate from the historic method of multiplying the final stage supply voltage and current, and providing a limit based on this "input" power. While you may lose a little power in the feedline, you can use antennas with gain, possibly generating the equivalent of a fair few kilowatts in one direction.
Where a power amplifier is used, it would mean the output of this part of the transmitter string.
The 30 metre (30 meter) band, one of the WARC bands introduced in the early 1980s, is quite narrow, and not an Amateur band in all countries. To avoid interference to non-Amateur users outside the US a maximum power limit of 200 watts PEP is imposed. Unlike Australia and some African countries, voice and image are not permitted.
Current Technicians and Novices will recognise this power level as applying to their operation CW on the HF bands.
The alternative is EIRP or ERP, the latter, effective radiated power, meaning that on 60 metres you may only radiate 100 Watts into the dipole feed-point, or another arrangement which results in the same power being radiated.
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| This illustrates the first of the 60 metre channels. 5330.5 kHz is the dial frequency on a typical Amateur rig, also the frequency of the suppressed carrier. 5332 is the government name for the channel, and the centre frequency of the allocation for that channel. As you can see, the blue section, representing spectrum in which emissions are permitted, is 2.8 kHz wide. This means the audio frequency is 100 to 2900 Hertz, although more usually it would start at around 300 Hz. |
As the wavelength is quite large, producing a gain antenna on this band is challenging, especially if it is to be steerable. A Rhombic is perhaps the best option. A curtain array, or its relative the "Lazy-H", would also be huge, but possible. In any case, you would have to reduce power to compensate, so you don't get a bigger mouth, but do get bigger ears, meaning an improvement in received signal strength.
Off this paper, EIRP is power compared to an isotropic radiator.
Until early January 2024 an old rule from the early 1980s, the era of really slow dial-up modems and low speed AX-25 packet, FCC rules limited the baud-rate on MF/HF, VHF, and 70 cm, meaning the number of symbols per second which could be sent. They have now fallen into line with the sensible practice elsewhere of limiting bandwidth instead.
This rule has been replaced with bandwidth limits thus: For segments between 1.8 MHz and 28.3 MHz the limit is 2.8 kHz. This is similar to an SSB voice emission in width.
Remember that RTTY (radio-teletype) and data can only be sent on the lower portion of many bands, with voice and image only on the higher part. Note 160 metres is less restricted, but the voluntary bandplan should be adhered to. On 30 metres voice and image are verboten in the US, so RTTY and data can be used across the band, again subject to the sharing arrangements just mentioned.
The benefit is that advanced modes such as Pactor 4 can be used, including with Winlink, an e-mail service. This mode permits up to 5500 bps throughput, with a raw rate of 10,000 bps. Other modes may also be developed to take advantage of this update.
Note that the 300 baud limit currently applies on 2200 and 630 metres, along with a 1 kHz shift limit.
With the two questions on this removed, as marked below, you really just need to know you can look it up in the regulations. These are rules 97.305(c), and 97.307, with reference to 97.309. Future pools will likely add questions referring to these new bandwidths.
With the order above, the FCC indicated they are seeking input on removing baudrate limits from the VHF bands and 70cm. In the first two cases a limit of 19.2 kbaud applies, and in the latter two, 56 kbaud. The bandwidths also apply, with the proposal that only these will remain.
For 6m and 2 metres the bandwidth limit is 20 kHz, a little broader that typical ham FM voice, allowing things such standard or fast packet. 1.25 metres and 70 cm have a 100 kHz limit, with no specific restrictions above this, although you do need to play nicely with other users on the band.
Note that baud rate is the number of elements of data per second. If we have 300 periods per second in which frequencies can be one of two tones, we have 300 bits per second for our 300 baud. This is Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), or Audio Frequency Shift Keying, AFSK. An alternative is that the phase of the signal is changed, called PSK, or phase shift keying.
It is however possible for each signal transition to represent more than one bit, so if there are 4 different phase angles, or 4 different tones, then there are 2 bits per baud, so for 300 baud the throughput can be 600 bps; likewise 600 baud and 1200 bps. As you can imagine, the term baud was commonly used incorrectly, in the place of bps, in marketing.
Modems sold in the 1990s and 2000s with a 56 kbps claim used a complex system called Quadrature amplitude modulation, or QAM. This extends to things such as ADSL, data over pay TV cable, and digital TV broadcasting; plus Pactor 4 under good conditions. The more possible states, the more bits can be sent in each symbol, although the quality of the channel (lack of noise, etc) must be good. Some of these terms can be explored on Wikipedia.
Once an Amateur has passed the General paper, as you, dear reader hopefully will soon, they can apply to become a Volunteer Examiner (VE). This application is made to a Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (VEC). There are a number of these, the largest being ARRL/VEC. There is no need to be a member of any club or group (including ARRL), nor can they you precluded from being registered with a VEC on the basis of being a member of a club; nor because of race, sex, religion or national origin.
Currently the main VEC which is working with VEs in Australia is the ARRL/VEC. Several VEs, including myself, have joined GLAARG, but have not run exams through them, as of late 2023. The Laurel VEC has several teams in Europe, and also works with the Seven Seas Cruising Association.
To become a VE, you apply to the VEC. FCC Certified VECs are listed on the National Conference of Volunteer Examiner Coordinators (NCVEC) site, on this page. A few of note are the large ARRL/VEC; Laurel VEC, which provides exams without fees; and V5YI-VEC. Your author has recently joined GLAARG, the Greater Los Angeles Amateur Radio Group VEC.
Location or nationality does not matter, only the licence grade held (General or above), and being 18 years old, or greater. If you are outside the US, you should provide your actual address, not the one you use for your licence, as ARRL/VEC and GLAARG send you a laminated badge with your details on it, and when you are lead or liaison VE, exam paperwork. While much of the paperwork can be printed locally, using "Exam Tools" software, CSCEs must be on the provided multi-part forms, or via the new electronic forms. I recommend using the multi-part Candidate Roster, and the multi-part Test Session Report.
That said, there is a requirement for the physical capability to perform the necessary supervision.
FedEx envelopes and labels (on the ARRL/VEC account) can also be provided, or you can claim back the postal charges.
To run an examination three VEs must observe the exam, initial the paper, and sign off on the Certificate of Successful Completion of Examination (CSCE). To administer a Technician exam the three VEs must hold at least General licences. To run tests for people seeking a General licence or upgrade, they must hold Advanced or Extra licences; and for Extra, be Extras.
While administering exams, you may have candidates who present with an expired licence, or evidence of it, beyond the two year grace period for renewal. Depending on the time since the licence expired, the typical path is passing the Technician paper, Element 2, then applying the credit for the expired licence. Those who had a General or Advanced can apply for a General licence. Those who held an Extra can apply for an Extra. For those getting a General by doing Element 2, there is also the option to sit Element 4, and potentially gain an Extra.
Referring to the question, one of the distractors refers to Amateur or Commercial licence, but in the US a commercial licence (also gained by passing a test on technical matters and procedures), does not cut the mustard for getting a ham licence. While certain callbook entries can also be used, there is, as far as I know, no requirement for it to be published in the USA. What is required is the Element 2 exam pass. The other two incorrect options mentioned are just distorted versions of two of several options to prove the previous licence grant.
Outside the US, in countries such as Australia, other qualifications may provide an exemption from the theory paper, or both theory and regulations papers.
Off the exam, the other procedure you may have is the "Administrative Upgrade". While many will have taken advantage of this in the past, if you are the pioneering VE group in your non-US location, you may get these. If a US amateur moved to Perth, got his VK6 (or VK7, there is a Perth is Tassie too) call, and dropped his US licence, but then sat a Technician to operate in a visit home in around 2012, this visit pre-dating the concession to old General, Advanced, or Extra operators, he or she may present at a session with evidence of the expired licence, and their current licence on FCC "basket-weave" paper, or an Official Copy from the ULS. The other case, also not mentioned in the exam, is those with an expired Technician licence issued before March 21, 1987. As the Technician was more challenging back then, there is a credit for Element 3, thus a person who for some reason did not take advantage of the upgrade in the past may present with a scan of a 1967 or later callbook, a letter from the FCC (or their archive contractor), or other evidence of the old call, and their current licence. A fee is still charged, but no exam need be sat. That said, the fee does also allow an attempt at the Extra paper. A currently unlicensed person with evidence of an expired "old" Technician licence can also sit the modern Tech paper, and gain a General.
Should you wish to view the regulations and procedures regarding this, see this ARRL page. Most old callbooks can be found here: Internet Archive - Callbooks
If you are able to take advantage of this, I suggest you continue to review the current regulations, then search for an exam session near your location.
If this has saved you study, you might want to use my Tip Jar (US$2), or buy me a (not) coffee: ko-fi.com/ag6le
Another option is to use the credit, and to study to obtain an Extra licence. Links to my pages on the current Extra is here.
Several VECs are now working together to provide online exams, with video supervision, initiated during the initial wave of COVID-19, and associated limitations.
A "Certificate of Successful Completion of Examination" is a half-letter sized (216 mm wide by 140 mm high) three-part self-carboned slip which records a candidate's successful completion of the exam. In the case of ARRL-VEC forms: The candidate takes the white original, the VE team retains the yellow copy, and the pink is packed in the return to the VEC. VEs need to ensure each layer is clear.
It is valid for 365 days.
This is partly a hang-over from the days of Morse testing, where a person might attend on session to do their Morse, and then do their written exam(s) at a later session, or vis-a-versa. It does allow someone to do one paper at a session, and then do the following one at another session, before applying for their licence or upgrade, really only useful if you have a near miss on the second paper, and can go back a week or so later. Otherwise you may as well apply for the upgrade or licence you have qualified for, then, if you wish, get a vanity or new systematic call for your upgrade, although you can, say, start on HF with the /AG suffix before doing the Extra paper.
For completeness, a Novice licensed some decades ago may now, now having time to pass the Technician paper, can use /KT suffix, enabling operation on various VHF+ bands. The /AE suffix allows those passing all papers necessary for an Extra licence to expand into these segments of the bands.
The other use may be for when a candidate has prepared for the Extra, but not this paper, so only passes the higher paper, or only passes Tech and Extra. The CSCE can be issued for the Extra paper, and candidate can go home to study for the General, and then use both the pass at the second session, and the CSCE for Extra to get the Extra licence or upgrade.
A third use I have thought of is that if a non-US citizen who has a licence with reciprocal access to HF only passed Element 2 (Technician) in an attempt to get a US licence, and who would therefore lose HF privileges if they applied for the Technician licence. They could hold the CSCE until after their trip, then get the Technician licence, and/or retest for a higher licence (or do so while in the US).
In 2000, when the current three grades came into force, the FCC was required by the ITU to examine those wishing to access the MF & HF bands in the use of Morse Code, or to delegate such exams. To comply, a rudimentary 5 WPM receiving test, previously used for the Novice licence, was "Element 1".
Element 2 is the Technician paper, Element 3 the General, and Element 4 the Extra.
At some point after 2006 when the ITU removed this requirement, Element 1 was abolished, but the subsequent numbering remained. Thus my exam in 2012 consisted of the three multiple choice papers only, with no Morse test.
Some holding the old Advanced licence, which required a much higher speed, have remained at this level to show they had passed this test. As with every grade, some are simply happy with the access this gives them, or are too busy to upgrade.
These are actual questions from the General exam.
G1C01 [97.313(c)(1)]
What is the maximum transmitter power an amateur station may use on 10.140 MHz?
A. 200 watts PEP output
B. 1000 watts PEP output
C. 1500 watts PEP output
D. 2000 watts PEP output
In common with Technicians in their limited HF allocations, the power on this band (30 metres) is 200 watts PEP, answer A.
This helps avoid interference to non-Amateur stations outside the US.
G1C02 [97.313]
What is the maximum transmitter power an amateur station may use on the 12-meter band?
A. 50 watts PEP output
B. 200 watts PEP output
C. 1500 watts PEP output
D. An effective radiated power equivalent to 100 watts from a half-wave dipole
In absence of a specific band-related limit, the power limit is 1500 watts, answer C.
G1C03 [97.303(h)(1)]
What is the maximum bandwidth permitted by FCC rules for Amateur Radio stations transmitting on USB frequencies in the 60-meter band?
A. 2.8 kHz
B. 5.6 kHz
C. 1.8 kHz
D. 3 kHz
This is 2.8 kHz, answer A.
G1C04 [97.303(i)]
Which of the following is required by the FCC rules when operating in the 60-meter band?
A. If you are using an antenna other than a dipole, you must keep a record of the gain of your antenna
B. You must keep a record of the date, time, frequency, power level, and stations worked
C. You must keep a record of all third-party traffic
D. You must keep a record of the manufacturer of your equipment and the antenna used
You must record the gain of your antenna is you use something other than a dipole, answer A.
G1C05 [97.313]
What is the limit for transmitter power on the 28 MHz band for a General Class control operator?
A. 100 watts PEP output
B. 1000 watts PEP output
C. 1500 watts PEP output
D. 2000 watts PEP output
On the long-standing bands, including 10 metres, Generals and above can use the default 1500 watts PEP, answer C.
G1C06 [97.313]
Which of the following is a limitation on transmitter power on the 1.8 MHz band?
A. 200 watts PEP output
B. 1000 watts PEP output
C. 1200 watts PEP output
D. 1500 watts PEP output
On the long-standing bands, including 160 metres, the default 1500 watts PEP applies, answer D.
G1C07 [97.309(a)(4)]
What must be done before using a new digital protocol on the air?
A. Type-certify equipment to FCC standards
B. Obtain an experimental license from the FCC
C. Publicly document the technical characteristics of the protocol
D. Submit a rule-making proposal to the FCC describing the codes and methods of the technique
If you have invented a new protocol you must publish its characteristics, so it is not considered encryption, answer C.
This could be on a website, from which you might also allow the download of the software used to implement the mode.
G1C08 [97.307(f)(3)] - Baud rate question removed.
G1C09 [97.313(i)]
What is the maximum power limit on the 60-meter band?
A. 1500 watts PEP
B. 10 watts RMS
C. ERP of 100 watts PEP with respect to a dipole
D. ERP of 100 watts PEP with respect to an isotropic antenna
An effective power equivalent to that produced by 100 watts into a dipole, answer C.
G1C10 [97.305(c) and 97.307(f)(4)] - Baud rate question removed.
G1C11 [97.313]
What measurement is specified by FCC rules that regulate maximum power?
A. RMS output from the transmitter
B. RMS input to the antenna
C. PEP input to the antenna
D. PEP output from the transmitter
This is peak envelope power, or PEP, from the transmitter, answer D.
G1D01 [97.501, 97.505(a)]
Who may receive partial credit for the elements represented by an expired amateur radio license?
A. Any person who can demonstrate that they once held an FCC-issued General, Advanced, or Amateur Extra class license that was not revoked by the FCC
B. Anyone who held an FCC-issued amateur radio license that has been expired for not less than 5 years and not more than 15 years
C. Any person who previously held an amateur license issued by another country, but only if that country has a current reciprocal licensing agreement with the FCC
D. Only persons who once held an FCC issued Novice, Technician, or Technician Plus license
A person with an expired General, Advanced, or Extra can get credit, answer A.
G1D02 [97.509(b)(3)(i)]
What license examinations may you administer when you are an accredited Volunteer Examiner holding a General class operator license?
A. General and Technician
B. None, only Amateur Extra class licensees may be accredited
C. Technician only
D. Amateur Extra, General, and Technician
General grade VEs can only administer Technician papers, answer C, for Charlie.
G1D03 [97.9(b)]
On which of the following band segments may you operate if you are a Technician class operator and have an unexpired Certificate of Successful Completion of Examination (CSCE) for General class privileges?
A. Only the Technician band segments until your upgrade is posted in the FCC database
B. Only on the Technician band segments until you have a receipt for the FCC application fee payment
C. On any General or Technician class band segment
D. On any General or Technician class band segment except 30 meters and 60 meters
For operation, you are Authorised General, so can operate on all segments which a person with a General licence in the ULS can, answer C.
As an aside, an upgrade is an administrative update to a licence, not a new licence, so that there is no FCC fee.
The upgrade must be in the ULS before a person is permitted to administer an exam.
G1D04 [97.509(3)(i)(c)]
Who must observe the administration of a Technician class license examination?
A. At least three Volunteer Examiners of General class or higher
B. At least two Volunteer Examiners of General class or higher
C. At least two Volunteer Examiners of Technician class or higher
D. At least three Volunteer Examiners of Technician class
Three VEs are needed to run an exam, and to be a VE you must be a General or higher, answer A.
This question has been altered to take into account that in the COVID era, remote exam systems allow VEs to observe the candidate electronically.
G1D05 [97.7]
When operating a US station by remote control from outside the country, what license is required of the control operator?
A. A US operator/primary station license
B. Only an appropriate US operator/primary license and a special remote station permit from the FCC
C. Only a license from the foreign country, as long as the call sign includes identification of portable operation in the US
D. A license from the foreign country and a special remote station permit from the FCC
To use a remote station which includes a transmitter which allows adjustment of frequency, etc, a US licence must be held, answer A.
Examples of these services include the US based, commercial Remote Ham Radio and the global, community based Remote Hams sites.
This does not apply to Echolink or IRLP, where you are using a repeater, nor to systems such as DMR.
G1D06 [97.119(f)(2)]
Until an upgrade to General class is shown in the FCC database, when must a Technician licensee identify with "AG" after their call sign?
A. Whenever they operate using General class frequency privileges
B. Whenever they operate on any amateur frequency
C. Whenever they operate using Technician frequency privileges
D. A special identifier is not required if their General class license application has been filed with the FCC
This applies when using General frequencies, answer A.
I am sure you won't get into trouble for using it on a Technician frequency, but you might be considered a show-off, or someone will moan about it.
G1D07 [97.509(b)(1)]
Volunteer Examiners are accredited by what organization?
A. The Federal Communications Commission
B. The Universal Licensing System
C. A Volunteer Examiner Coordinator
D. The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau
Most functions relating to licensing are delegated to VECs, so it is the Volunteer Examiner Coordinators which accredit the VEs, answer C.
G1D08 [97.509(b)(3)]
Which of the following criteria must be met for a non-US citizen to be an accredited Volunteer Examiner?
A. The person must be a resident of the US for a minimum of 5 years
B. The person must hold an FCC granted Amateur Radio license of General class or above
C. The person’s home citizenship must be in ITU region 2
D. None of these choices is correct; a non-US citizen cannot be a Volunteer Examiner
As for all persons wanting to be a VE, a person who is not a US citizen they must hold an FCC General or higher Ham licence, answer B.
I am a VE who is not a US citizen, resident, or "Green-Card" holder, who lives in Region 3. My US Extra licence grade is the only relevant factor. Also, the exam generally does not use questions containing a false premise, so D is wrong.
G1D09 [97.9(b)]
How long is a Certificate of Successful Completion of Examination (CSCE) valid for exam element credit?
A. 30 days
B. 180 days
C. 365 days
D. For as long as your current license is valid
A CSCE is valid for 365 days, answer C.
G1D10 [97.509(b)(2)]
What is the minimum age that one must be to qualify as an accredited Volunteer Examiner?
A. 16 years
B. 18 years
C. 21 years
D. There is no age limit
A person must be the 18, answer B.
This is the age of majority (adulthood) for Federal government issues, such as joining the military, even if states apply other ages in other matters.
G1D11 [97.505]
What action is required to obtain a new General class license after a previously held license has expired and the two-year grace period has passed?
A. They must have a letter from the FCC showing they once held an amateur or commercial license
B. There are no requirements other than being able to show a copy of the expired license
C. Contact the FCC to have the license reinstated
D. The applicant must show proof of the appropriate expired license grant and pass the current Element 2 exam
A person who has let their General or Advanced licence expire can obtain a General licence by showing proof of the expired licence, and passing Element 2, the Technician paper, answer D.
Proof can include an entry in the old callbook (or an online scan of one), if the paper licence is not available. Evidence may be in the ULS, if the expiry is fairly recent.
Note that if you hold a current Technician, presumably obtained before July 21, 2014 when this rule came into force, and have proof of an expired higher grade licence, or the old Tech one mentioned above, you can be upgraded without an exam, by providing this evidence at an exam session, and paying any session fee.
G1D12 [97.507]
When operating a station in South America by remote control over the internet from the US, what regulations apply?
A. Those of both the remote station’s country and the FCC
B. Those of the remote station’s country and the FCC’s third-party regulations
C. Only those of the remote station’s country
D. Only those of the FCC
It is the regulations of the remote country, answer C.
On to the shorter: Regulations 3 - Station Control page
You can find links to lots more on the Learning Material page.
Written by Julian Sortland, VK2YJS & AG6LE, May 2024.
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